Using A Range Of Recruitment Strategies To Recruit Those Who Use Anabolic Androgenic Steroids
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59455/jomes.42Keywords:
recruitment, social media, anabolic androgenic steroids, hard-to-reach populationsAbstract
Collecting data from people who use substances can be challenging. As many now have communities in the digital realm, recruitment via online networks has become a popular method with hard-to-reach participants. This paper seeks to share the pros and cons of different types of recruitment (both online and non-virtually) for those who choose to use androgenic anabolic steroids. Method: This case study highlights positive and negative factors to consider for questionnaire design and dissemination via social media platforms and traditional methods. Findings and Results: Key lessons with regards to online dissemination via social media include the benefits of using specialist hashtags, access to specialist online fora with respite gatekeeper endorsement, awareness of the impact on reputation for those asked to share, and anonymity. Questionnaire design findings emphasise the importance of piloting the questionnaire, giving consideration to how participants from specific populations may react to the way questions are phrased, and the need for awareness of specific sensitivities of topic of the targeted demographic sub-group. This paper will help sociologists and other social and behavioural science researchers who wish to consider and evaluate their own distribution methods for data collection when it comes to seeking out more hard-to-reach groups.
References
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. (2010). Consideration of the anabolic steroids. London: Home Office.
Andrews, D., Nonnecke, B., & Preece, J. (2003). Electronic Survey Methodology: A Case Study in Reaching Hard-to-Involve Internet Users. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 16(2), 185–210. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327590IJHC1602_04 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327590IJHC1602_04
Antonopoulos, G., & Hall, A. (2016). ‘Gain with no pain’: Anabolic-androgenic steroids trafficking in the UK. European Journal of Criminology, 13(6), 696–713. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370816633261 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370816633261
Atkinson, R., Flint, F., & Gilbert, N. (2001). Snowball research strategies. Sociology Research Update: University of Surrey. Retrieved from https://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU33.PDF
Bakhshandeh, R., Samadi, M., Azimifar, Z., & Schaeffer, J. (2011). Degrees of separation in social networks. Proceedings of the 4th Annual Symposium on Combinatorial Search, SoCS 2011, 18–23. https://doi.org/10.1609/socs.v2i1.18200 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1609/socs.v2i1.18200
Bergh, D. D., Corley, K. G., & Ketchen, D. J. (2017). Mixed Methods in the Organizational Sciences: Taking Stock and Moving Forward. Organizational Research Methods, 20(2), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428116687026 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428116687026
Biernacki, P., & Waldorf, D. (1981). Snowball sampling: Problems and techniques of chain referral sampling. Sociological Methods & Research, 10(2), 141–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/004912418101000205 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/004912418101000205
Bonnecaze, A. K., O’Connor, T., & Aloi, J. A. (2020). Characteristics and Attitudes of Men Using Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS): A Survey of 2385 Men. American Journal of Men’s Health, 14(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988320966536 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988320966536
Börjesson, A., Ekebergh, M., Dahl, M., Ekström, L., Lehtihet, M., & Vicente, V. (2021). Men’s experiences of using anabolic androgenic steroids. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2021.1927490 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2021.1927490
Brackertz, N. (2007). Who is hard to reach and why? ISR Working Paper, (January), 1–7.
Buarki, H., & Alkhateeb, B. (2018). Use of hashtags to retrieve information on the web. Electronic Library, 36(2), 286–304. Retrieved from http://10.0.4.84/EL-01-2017-0011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/EL-01-2017-0011
Burns, N., & Grove, S. K. (1999). Understanding nursing research (2nd ed.). London: W.B. Saunders.
Cafri, G., Thompson, J. K., Ricciardelli, L., McCabe, M., Smolak, L., & Yesalis, C. (2005). Pursuit of the muscular ideal: Physical and psychological consequences and putative risk factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 215–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2004.09.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2004.09.003
Clark, T. (2011). Gaining and maintaining access: Exploring the mechanisms that support and challenge the relationship between gatekeepers and researchers. Qualitative Social Work, 10(4), 485–502. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325009358228 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325009358228
Cook, D. (2002). Communities in the Policy Process. Social Policy & Administration, 36(5), 516–531. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9515.00300 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9515.00300
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design : Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications.
Dillman, D. A. (2007). Mail and internet surveys: the tailored design method. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.
Eisenberg, M., Gower, A., Brown, C., Wood, B., & Porta, C. (2017). “They Want to Put a Label on It:” Patterns and Interpretations of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Labels Among Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 60(2), S27--S28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.10.072 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.10.072
Fan, W., & Yan, Z. (2010). Factors affecting response rates of the web survey: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 132–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHB.2009.10.015 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.10.015
Fielding, N., Lee, R., Blank, G., & Fricker, R. D. (2012). Sampling Methods for Web and E-mail Surveys. The SAGE Handbook of Online Research Methods, 195–216. https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857020055.n11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857020055.n11
Flanagan, S. M., & Hancock, B. (2010). ‘Reaching the hard to reach’ - Lessons learned from the VCS (voluntary and community Sector). A qualitative study. BMC Health Services Research, 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-10-92 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-10-92
FRANK. (2018). FRANK: friendly, confidential drugs advice? Retrieved 29 March 2018, from FRANK website: http://www.talktofrank.com/contact-frank
Goode, S. D. (1999). Substance-using mothers: taking control, losing control: the everyday lives of drug and alcohol-dependent mothers in West Midlands. University of Warwick. https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/3025/
Guss, C. E., Williams, D. N., Reisner, S. L., Austin, S. B., & Katz-Wise, S. L. (2016). Disordered Weight Management Behaviors and Non-Prescription Steroid Use in Massachusetts Transgender Youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(2), S102–S103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.10.217 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.10.217
Harvey, O., Keen, S., Teijlingen, E. van, & Parrish, M. (2019). Support for people who use Anabolic Androgenic Steroids: A Systematic Scoping Review into what they want and what they access. BMC Public Health, 19(1), 1024. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7288-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7288-x
Harvey, O., Parrish, M., Teijlingen, E. van, & Trenoweth, S. (2020). Support for non-prescribed anabolic androgenic steroids users: a qualitative exploration of their needs. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2019.1705763 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2019.1705763
Hennell, K., Limmer, M., & Piacentini, M. (2019). Ethical Dilemmas Using Social Media in Qualitative Social Research: A Case Study of Online Participant Observation. Sociological Research Online, 25(3), 473–489. https://doi.org/10.1177/1360780419888933 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1360780419888933
Hope, V., McVeigh, J., Marongiu, A., Evans-Brown, M., Smith, J., & Kimergard, A. (2015). Injection site infections and injuries in men who inject image- and performance-enhancing drugs: prevalence, risks factors, and healthcare seeking. Epidemiology & Infection, 143(1), 132–140. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268814000727 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268814000727
Ip, E. J., Barnett, M. J., Tenerowicz, M. J., & Perry, P. J. (2011). The Anabolic 500 survey: characteristics of male users versus nonusers of anabolic-androgenic steroids for strength training. Pharmacotherapy, 31(8), 757–766. https://doi.org/10.1592/phco.31.8.757 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1592/phco.31.8.757
Ip, E. J., Trinh, K., Tenerowicz, M. J., Pal, J., Lindfelt, T. A., & Perry, P. J. (2015). Characteristics and behaviors of older male anabolic steroid users. Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 28(5), 450–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/0897190014527319 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0897190014527319
Ip, E. J., Yadao, M., Shah, B., Doroudgar, S., Perry, P., Tenerowicz, M., … Pope Jr., H. (2017). Polypharmacy, Infectious Diseases, Sexual Behavior, and Psychophysical Health Among Anabolic Steroid-Using Homosexual and Heterosexual Gym Patrons in San Francisco’s Castro District. Substance Use & Misuse, 52(7), 959–968. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2016.1267224 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2016.1267224
Iversen, J., Hope, V. D., & McVeigh, J. (2016). Access to needle and syringe programs by people who inject image and performance enhancing drugs. International Journal of Drug Policy, 31(2016), 199–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.01.016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.01.016
Jennings, C., Patten, E., Kennedy, M., & Kelly, C. (2014). Examining the Profile and Perspectives of Individuals Attending Harm Reduction Services who are Users of Performance and Image enhancing Drugs. Dublin: Merchants Quay Ireland. https://www.drugsandalcohol.ie/23024/
Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X033007014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X033007014
Joseph, R. P., Keller, C., & Ainsworth, B. E. (2016). Recruiting Participants into Pilot Trials. Californian Journal of Health Promotion, 14(2), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.32398/cjhp.v14i2.1878 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32398/cjhp.v14i2.1878
Jupp, V. (2006). The SAGE dictionary of social research methods. London: SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857020116 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857020116
Kanayama, G., Hudson, J., & Pope Jr., H. (2012). Culture, Psychosomatics and Substance Abuse: The Example of Body Image Drugs. Psychotherapy & Psychosomatics, 81(2), 73–78. https://doi.org/10.1159/000330415 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000330415
Karon, J., & Wejnert, C. (2014). Time-Location Sampling. In A. C. Michalos (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research (pp. 6662–6667). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_4201 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_4201
Kimergård, A. (2015). A qualitative study of anabolic steroid use amongst gym users in the United Kingdom: Motives, beliefs and experiences. Journal of Substance Use, 20(4), 288–294. https://doi.org/10.3109/14659891.2014.911977 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/14659891.2014.911977
Lavrakas, P. (2008). Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods. Thousand Oaks. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963947 NV - 0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963947
Lumsden, J. (2007). Online-Questionaire Design Guidelines. In Handbook of Research on Electronic Surveys and Measurements (pp. 44–64). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59140-792-8.ch005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59140-792-8.ch005
Markstedt, E., & Vernersdotter, F. (2013). Investigating the Effects of Questionnaire Design and Question Characteristics on Respondent Fatigue. AAPOR Annual Conference 2013. Boston, Ma. https://gup.ub.gu.se/file/171320
Mason, J. (2002). Qualitative researching (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications.
Maycock, B., & Howat, P. (2005). The barriers to illegal anabolic steroid use. Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy, 12(4), 317–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687630500103622 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09687630500103622
McVeigh, J., & Begley, E. (2016). Anabolic steroids in the UK: an increasing issue for public health. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 24(3), 278–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2016.1245713 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2016.1245713
O’Connor, T. (2021). Anabolicdoc.com.
Olson, K. (2010). An examination of questionnaire evaluation by expert reviewers. Field Methods, 22(4), 295–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X10379795 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X10379795
Papangelis, K., Chamberlain, A., & Liang, H. (2016). Co-Design for Harm Reduction Systems with Online Communities of Bodybuilding Steroid Users. International Conference on Collaboration Technologies and Systems, p. 35. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/CTS.2016.0026 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/CTS.2016.0026
Patton, M. Q. (2013). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Pozzar, R., Hammer, M. J., Underhill-Blazey, M., Wright, A. A., Tulsky, J. A., Hong, F., … Berry, D. L. (2020). Threats of Bots and Other Bad Actors to Data Quality Following Research Participant Recruitment Through Social Media: Cross-Sectional Questionnaire. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(10), e23021. https://doi.org/10.2196/23021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/23021
Raymond, H. F., Ick, T., Grasso, M., Vaudrey, J., & McFarland, W. (2007). Time Location Sampling (TLS). San Francisco Department of Public Health.
Rees, C. (2011). An introduction to research for midwives (3rd ed.). Edinburgh: Elsevier.
Regmi, P. R., Waithaka, E., Paudyal, A., Simkhada, P., & van Teijlingen, Edwin. (2017). Guide to the design and application of online questionnaire surveys. Nepal Journal of Epidemiology, 6(4), 640–644. https://doi.org/10.3126/nje.v6i4.17258 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/nje.v6i4.17258
Reynolds, R. A., Woods, R., & Baker, J. D. (2007). Handbook of research on electronic surveys and measurements. Idea Group Reference. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59140-792-8
Rodham, K., & Gavin, J. (2006). The ethics of using the internet to collect qualitative research data. Research Ethics Review, 2(3), 92–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/174701610600200303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/174701610600200303
Rolstad, S., Adler, J., & Rydén, A. (2011). Response Burden and Questionnaire Length: Is Shorter Better? A Review and Meta-analysis. Value in Health, 14(8), 1101–1108. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JVAL.2011.06.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2011.06.003
Rowe, R., Berger, I., Yaseen, B., & Copeland, J. (2017). Risk and blood‐borne virus testing among men who inject image and performance enhancing drugs, Sydney, Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review. https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.12467 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.12467
Sagoe, D., Andreassen, C. S., & Pallesen, S. (2014). The aetiology and trajectory of anabolic-androgenic steroid use initiation: a systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention & Policy, 9(1), 24. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-9-27 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-9-27
Settanni, M., Prino, L. E., Fabris, M. A., & Longobardi, C. (2018). Muscle Dysmorphia and anabolic steroid abuse: Can we trust the data of online research? Psychiatry Research, 263, 288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.049 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.049
Shaghaghi, A., Bhopal, R. S., & Sheikh, A. (2011). Approaches to Recruiting ‘Hard-To-Reach’ Populations into Re¬search: A Review of the Literature. Health Promotion Perspectives, 1(2), 86–89. https://doi.org/10.5681/hpp.2011.009
Siniscalco, M. T., Auriat, N., & Ross, K. N. (2005). Quantitative research methods in educational planning: Module 8: Questionnaire design. In K. Ross (Ed.), UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning. Paris.
Smith, D., Hale, B., Rhea, D., Olrich, T., & Collier, K. (2009). Big, Buff and Dependent: Exercise Dependence, Muscle Dysmorphia and Anabolic Steroid Use in Bodybuilders. In L. Katlin (Ed.), Men and addictions: new research. New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
Spacey, A., Harvey, O., & Casey, C. (2020). Postgraduate researchers’ experiences of accessing participants via gatekeepers: ‘wading through treacle!’ Journal of Further and Higher Education, 00(00), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2020.1774051 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2020.1774051
Stieger, S., Reips, U.-D., & Voracek, M. (2007). Forced-Response in Online Surveys: Bias from Reactance and an Increase in Sex-Specific Dropout. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 58(11), 1653–1660. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20651
Stonewall. (2016). Do Ask, Do Tell: Capturing data on sexual orientation and gender identity globally. London.
Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2003). Handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioral research. London: SAGE Publications.
Teodorowski, P., Rodgers, S. E., Fleming, K., & Frith, L. (2022). Use of the Hashtag #DataSavesLives on Twitter: Exploratory and Thematic Analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24(11), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.2196/38232 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/38232
Thorlton, J. R., McElmurry, B., Park, C., & Hughes, T. (2012). Adolescent performance enhancing substance use: regional differences across the US. Journal Of Addictions Nursing, 23(2), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.3109/10884602.2012.669419 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/10884602.2012.669419
Underwood, M. (2019). The unintended consequences of emphasising blood-borne virus in research on, and services for, people who inject image and performance enhancing drugs: A commentary based on enhanced bodybuilder perspectives. International Journal of Drug Policy, 67, 19–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.11.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.11.005
van Teijlingen, E., & Hundley, V. (2001). The importance of pilot studies. Social Research Update, University of Surrey, (35), 33–36. https://doi.org/10.7748/ns2002.06.16.40.33.c3214 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7748/ns2002.06.16.40.33.c3214
Whitaker, C., Stevelink, S., & Fear, N. (2017). The Use of Facebook in Recruiting Participants for Health Research Purposes: A Systematic Review. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 19(8), e290. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.7071 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.7071
Wright, K. B. (2005). Researching Internet-Based Populations: Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Survey Research, Online Questionnaire Authoring Software Packages, and Web Survey Services. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2005.tb00259.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2005.tb00259.x
Yu, J., Hildebrandt, T., & Lanzieri, N. (2015). Healthcare professionals’ stigmatization of men with anabolic androgenic steroid use and eating disorders. Body Image, 15, 49–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.06.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.06.001
Zahnow, R., McVeigh, J., Bates, G., Hope, V., Kean, J., Campbell, J., & Smith, J. (2018). Identifying a typology of men who use anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS). International Journal of Drug Policy, 55, 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.02.022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.02.022
Zindel, Z. (2022). Social Media Recruitment in Online Survey Research: A Systematic Literature Review. Methods, Data, Analyses, 0(0), 42. https://doi.org/10.12758/mda.2022.15
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of Mixed Methods Studies

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

